Decision support applications such as On Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) and data mining tools for analyzing large databases are gaining popularity. Many databases are growing larger and larger, making it difficult for application programs and computers to search them in their entirety for each request for data, or query, by a user. This is particularly true when the number of users desiring data from the same database is also increasing.
Executing such applications on large volumes of data can also be resource intensive. Fortunately, samples of the results of queries to the database back end can be used to enhance the scalability of application servers without compromising the quality of their analysis. In other words, only portions or samples of the database are used to provide an estimate of results without scanning the entire database.
Typical decision-support applications use a structured query language (SQL) database system as the backend data warehouse and communicate data retrieval requests via relational SQL queries. On a large database, the cost of executing such queries against the relational backend can be expensive. Therefore, the ability of the application servers to work with samples raises the question of whether a database server can compute a sample of answers to queries without paying the cost of executing the entire query. Such functionality would also enable the database servers to scale efficiently. No matter how many records are in the database, only a statistically relevant sample of them would need to be checked to provide a fairly accurate estimation.
Data mining and statistical analysis involve techniques that can be robust and effective even when supplied with merely a sample of query results. Likewise, OLAP servers that answer queries involving aggregation (performing some function on the results to arrive at an answer, e.g., finding the average) can significantly benefit from the ability to present to the user an approximate aggregate computed from a sample of the subset of the multidimensional data the user is interested in analyzing.
It is important to recognize that sampling must be supported on the result of ad-hoc SQL queries, not just on stored relations. There are several reasons for such a requirement. First, applications need to analyze ad-hoc fragments of data, driven by user requirements, e.g., sales data for a certain time period or sales data for a certain product. Next, great scalability benefits may accrue from speeding-up queries that are expensive to compute in their entirety (complex SQL queries). Such queries typically involve foreign key joins, selections and group by.
Although there has been a wealth of work in databases on supporting sampling, no previous work has carefully examined the practicality of sampling techniques for ad-hoc queries over arbitrary databases. Approximate query answering has recently received a lot of attention, particularly in the context of Data Warehousing. Since most queries in the warehousing application involve aggregation, there is a need to ensure that approximately answering aggregation queries using sampling provides good results.
Sampling performs poorly when the distribution of the aggregated attribute is skewed. In other words, if some values are very high or very low compared to the rest of the values, sampling of the data might not find those “outlier” values, which could greatly affect the result obtained. Such a database is said to exhibit data skew. Sampling is also hard to use effectively in queries with low selectivity.
The potential effect of outlier values is illustrated by looking at a small database of six records. The values to be aggregated are 1, 2, 1, 4, 3, and 1000. The sampling of these values is based on looking at every other record. The values obtained from this data given the sampling used are 1, 1, and 3. If trying to estimate an average, it is clear that the estimation will be far from the real answer because the value of 1000 was not included in the results. Perhaps the numbers represent sales results from various locations. If trying to estimate total sales, the estimate will be far to low.
There are many other examples of how outlier values can dramatically affect the results of sampling a database. One example involves 10,000 tuples of which 99% have value 1 in the aggregate column, while the remaining 1% of the tuples have a value of 1000. Consider using a uniform random sample of size 100 to estimate the average value of the column over all tuples. It is quite likely that the sample would not include any tuple of value 1000, leading to an estimate of 1 for the average value. On the other hand, if perchance two or more tuples of value 1000 were to be included in the sample, then the estimate of the average value would be more than 20.98. In either case, the estimate would be far from the true value of the actual average, 10.99. It is only in the case where exactly one tuple of value 1000 is in the sample that a reasonable estimate of the average value would be obtained. But the latter event has probability 0.37, therefore there is high probability that a large error in the estimate would result.
In this example it is observed that a skewed database is characterized by the existence of certain tuples that are deviant from the rest with respect to their aggregate value. These are referred to as outliers. It should be noted that the presence of these tuples in the wrong proportion in the sample would also lead to large errors in the estimate of a query's result.
There are many examples one could provide to justify that indeed such skew exists in databases. Consider a database that maintains the population for different countries. The population figures for countries like China and India are surely deviant from the figures for the remaining countries and lead to a skew. Suppose a database maintained nationwide sales figures for a range of items ranging from a particular luxury model of automobile to six-packs of soda pop. While the sales figures for the automobile model would be very small, the sales figures for Coke could range in the millions. One potential solution to the problem involves greatly increasing the sample size. Greatly increasing the sample size results in losing the very benefit that sampling provides. It requires more system resources and takes more time.
There is a need to properly account for such outlier values without significantly affecting the speed and scalability benefits provided by sampling.
Low selectivity of queries can also contribute to significant error in approximation of aggregate values. No single sample of the database can answer all queries with low selectivity with sufficient accuracy. Most queries involve selection conditions or Group-By's. If the selectivity is low, then it dramatically and adversely impacts the accuracy of sampling-based estimation. Selection queries partition the relation into two sub-relations: tuples that satisfy the condition (relevant sub-relation) and those which do not. Sampling in a uniform manner results in the number of tuples that are sampled from the relevant sub-relation being proportional to its size. If the number of relevant tuples for the query is low, a very small relevant sample results, leading to large error. The same is true for Group-By queries which partition the relation into numerous sub-relations (tuples that belong to specific groups).
There is also a need for an accurate way to estimate the results of queries, such as an aggregation of queries having selection conditions and Group-By's. There is a need for such a way that does not greatly increase sample sizes, and retains the benefits that sampling provides for databases having data skew and low selectivity.